Victim/Offender Relationships

The focus in crime pattern analysis is generally on stranger-on-stranger crimes, but there are crime patterns that involve other relationships. These relationships are part of the crime pattern.

Relationship Examples

Stranger Crimes:

Random Stranger: Neither the victim nor the offender has any prior knowledge of the other.

Non-Random Stranger: The offender targets a particular type of victim (e.g., based on appearance, routine, or lifestyle) but has no personal connection to them.

Acquaintance Crimes:

Casual Acquaintance: The victim and offender have met before but have a superficial relationship.

Known Acquaintance: The victim and offender have some level of familiarity with each other but are not close.

Friend or Neighbor: The victim and the offender are friends, colleagues, or neighbors, with a relatively established relationship.

Intimate Partner Crimes:

Current Partner: The victim and offender are in a current romantic relationship.

Former Partner: The victim and offender were previously in a romantic relationship.

Familial Crimes:

Parent-Child: The victim or offender is a parent or guardian of the other.

Sibling: The victim and offender are siblings.

Extended Family: The victim and offender are related but not part of the immediate family (cousins, uncles, aunts, etc.).

Professional Relationships:

Employee-Employer: The victim and offender are connected through a work environment.

Client-Service Provider: The victim is a client of a service provided by the offender, or vice versa (such as doctor-patient).

Authority Relationships:

Teacher-Student: The victim and offender are connected through an educational setting.

Law Enforcement-Civilian: The victim or offender is a law enforcement officer.

Online Relationships:

Anonymous Online Interaction: Victim and offender have interacted only online and never met in person.

Known Online Interaction: The victim and offender have an online relationship and may have shared personal details but have not met in person.

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The circumstances of victimization often play a role in the stranger-on-stranger crime pattern.

 Circumstances of Victimization:

random victim (victim chosen without specific targeting)

targeted victim (victim selected intentionally due to specific characteristics or circumstances)

opportunistic victim (victim who becomes a target due to a crime opportunity arising)

repeat victim (victim who has experienced multiple incidents of victimization)

serial victim (victim targeted by a serial offender)

Non-Person Victims

NIBRS categorizes these victims in the following categories: business, financial institutions, government, religious organizations, and society/public. 

 Offenders may have relationships with those entities.

Lifestyle & Occupation

Lifestyle and occupation may make someone a more likely victim of crime and often can tell us something useful to know about the offender in investigations. 

Lifestyle

The way in which a person lives is their lifestyle. 

Victim Lifestyle Aspects:

Routine Activities: Daily activities like commuting, shopping, or leisure activities can affect a person's likelihood of becoming a victim. Routine activities can also lead to hotspots of criminal activity. 

Residential Location: Areas with high poverty, low levels of social cohesion, or high population density can have higher rates of victimization.

Occupation: Certain occupations may expose individuals to higher risks. For example, late-night workers or those in high-crime areas might be more susceptible.

Social Circles: The people one associates with can influence the likelihood of becoming a victim.

Risk Behavior: Engaging in risky behaviors like drug use, excessive alcohol consumption, or frequenting dangerous locations can increase victimization chances.

Visibility: High public visibility or social media presence might make individuals attractive targets for certain types of crime, such as stalking or cyberbullying.

Age and Gender: Different age groups and genders are susceptible to different types of crimes.

Lack of Security Measures: Inadequate home or personal security measures can make individuals easier targets.

Time and Place of Activities: Certain activities at specific times, like late-night outings, can make someone more susceptible.

Offender Lifestyle Aspects:

Criminal Opportunities: Offenders often choose areas where they believe crime can be committed with a lower risk of detection.

Economic Status: Offenders from lower economic backgrounds may be more likely to engage in property crimes.

Peer Influence: Criminal behavior is often influenced by an offender's social circle.

Skill Level: The level of skill an offender has can influence the types of crimes they commit. For example, skilled hackers may engage in cybercrime, while unskilled offenders may stick to simpler forms of crime.

Addiction: Substance abuse can drive crime, especially petty crimes, to sustain the addiction.

Routine Activities: Just as with victims, the routine activities of offenders can influence where and when crimes are likely to be committed.

Occupation: Some occupations provide greater opportunities for crimes like fraud or embezzlement.

Motivation: The offender’s underlying motivations can also dictate the types of crimes committed, ranging from thrill-seeking to economic necessity.

Resource Availability: Having access to weapons, transportation, or technology can expand the types of crimes an offender might commit.

Example lifestyle variables: alcohol abuser, alcoholic, bisexual, child, child molester, criminally active, crossdresser, drifter, drug addict, drug seller, drug user, elderly, gambler, habitual offender, heterosexual, hitchhiker, homeless person, homosexual, illegal alien, immigrant, loner, mentally disabled, mentally ill, physically disabled, panhandler, pedophile, pimp, promiscuous, prostitute, public figure, recluse, registered sex offender, retired, runaway, smuggler, street person, student, thief, trafficker, transgender, transient, transvestite, wealthy 

A person who lives a life of crime may have that lifestyle as their occupation. It may be their only work.

Occupation Examples

Management: administrator, director, executive, manager 

Business and Financial Operation: accountant, agent, appraiser, event planner, loan officer, tax preparer

Computer and Mathematical: computer programmer, database administrator, web developer,  statistician, data scientist

Architecture and Engineering: architect, drafter, engineer, surveyor, technologist

Life, Physical, and Social Science:  biologist, chemist, economist, physicist, psychologist, scientist

Community and Social Service: case worker, clergy, counselor, human services worker, social worker, therapist

Legal: judge, lawyer, magistrate, paralegal 

Educational Instruction and Library: curator, librarian, professor, teacher, teacher's aide, teaching assistant, tutor,  

Arts, Design, Entertainment, Sports, and Media: actor, anchor person, artist, athlete, coach, dancer, designer, disc jockey, director, editor, entertainer, journalist, musician, producer, reporter, scout, writer

Healthcare Practitioners and Technical: chiropractor, dentist, doctor, emergency medical technician, medical records specialist, nurse, paramedic, pharmacist, veterinarian 

Healthcare Support: massage therapist, nursing assistants, orderlies, occupational therapist, physical therapist

Protective Service: correctional officer, firefighter, military member, police officer, security screener, security guard, game warden 

Food Preparation and Serving Related: cook, bartender, dishwasher, food preparation worker, food server, host/hostess, waiter/waitress

Building and Grounds Cleaning and Maintenance:  groundskeeper, housekeeper, janitor, landscaper, maid

Personal Care and Service: animal caretaker, barber, coatroom attendant, fitness instructor, gambling dealer, hairdresser,  nail technician, tour guide

Sales and Related: cashier, clerk, door-to-door salesperson, model, sales representative, real estate agent, salesperson, street vendor 

Office and Administrative Support: administrative assistant, bank teller,  bill collector, data entry worker, file clerk, mail carrier, secretary

Farming, Fishing, and Forestry: agricultural worker, animal breeder, conservation worker, farm worker, logging worker, ranch worker

Construction and Extraction: carpenter, electrician, highway maintenance worker, mining worker, oil drill operator, painter, plumber, roofer

Installation, Maintenance, and Repair: locksmith, mechanic, service technician

Production:  baker, butcher, engraver, dry cleaner, laboratory technician, machine operator, production worker, tailor

Transportation and Material Moving: bus driver, flight attendant, parking attendant, pilot, railroad worker, sailor, taxi driver, truck driver

Role or Status of Victim

Sometimes, the role or status of the victims has significance.

Role or Status:

bystander victim (victim unintentionally involved in a criminal incident)

witness victim (victim who witnessed a crime and may be targeted as a result)

whistleblower victim (victim targeted for exposing illegal activities)

retaliation victim (victim targeted as retaliation for previous actions)

high-profile victim (victim with public visibility, such as celebrities or politicians)

vulnerable population victim (victim belonging to a group susceptible to victimization, such as children, the elderly, and homeless individuals)

symbolic victim (victim whose case gains significant attention and represents a larger issue)

community impact victim (victim whose victimization affects the community at large)

accomplice victim (victim who is involved in criminal activities alongside the offender)

Further Reading

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. May 2022 Occupation Profiles. United States Department of Labor. Available at: https://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes_stru.htm#00-0000

Impersonation, Lies, & Disguise

Sometimes offenders gain the trust of victims through means of deception.  They use disguises to avoid identification. Deception and disguise imply skill, confidence, and desire to commit crimes. They indicate the perpetrator planned.

Ruse, Con, and Impersonation 

An offender may be linked to multiple crimes by the ruse, con or, impersonation they employ. 

A ruse is an action intended to deceive someone or trick them. To con someone is to persuade them to do or believe something, typically by use of deception. The offender pretends  to do something in the following variable examples:

asking for/seeking directions

being sent by someone

going on date

lending assistance

looking for a pet

looking for someone

needing water/bathroom/phone

pretending to find money or other valuable

returning a purchase

returning stolen property

taking survey

faking a traffic accident

A lure is a temptation used to persuade a victim to do something (example: come closer) or go somewhere (example: get in a car). It is a form of deception.

Examples of using a lure:

Offender offered as a lure: amusement/game, assistance, candy/treats, cigarettes, drink (alcohol/coffee/water/etc.), food, employment, gas/oil/air for vehicle, gift/prize, information, money, profit on investment, romance, sex, toys, transportation, use of phone, use of toilet

Impersonation involves pretending to be another person to deceive a  victim. Here are variable examples of who an offender may pretend to be to commit a crime: 

blind person, businessperson, customer, dead, deaf person, delivery person, doctor/nurse, drunk/impaired, emergency services, employee, friend, God/Satan, guide, home buyer, home contractor, homeless, hurt, injured, inspector, insurance agent, journalist, law enforcement, minister, preacher, model agent, panhandler, photographer, physically disabled person, police, psychic, renter, renting, repair person, reporter,  salesperson, security guard, shopper, social services, tourist, utility worker, wheelchair-bound

Since crimes, especially robbery, are sometimes committed by masked perpetrators, or those wearing some sort of disguise, serial crimes may be linked via these elements. 

Mask and disguise type variable examples: 

altered age appearance, animal mask, Anonymous mask, authority figure, balaclava, bandana, Burqa, clown, construction worker, hood, fake beard, fake mustache, delivery person, ethnicity disguise, gas mask, Guy Fawkes, Halloween, hat, maintenance worker, man disguised as woman, medical, police, political figure, prosthetic, scarf, security guard, ski mask, stocking, surgical, wig, sunglasses, woman disguised as man

Victims' Vulnerabilities Further Reading

Further Reading

Glensor, R.W., Peak, K.J. (2004). Crimes Against Tourists, Problem-Specific Guide Series No. 26.  Problem-Oriented Guides for Police Series, Washington, DC: Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, U.S. Department of Justice. Available at: https://popcenter.asu.edu/content/crimes-against-tourists-0

Johnson, K.D. (2003). Financial Crimes Against the Elderly, Problem-Specific Guide Series No. 20.  Problem-Oriented Guides for Police Series, Washington, DC: Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, U.S. Department of Justice. Available at: https://popcenter.asu.edu/content/financial-crimes-against-elderly-0

Weisel, D. L.  (2005). Analyzing Repeat Victimization, Problem-Solving Tools Guide No. 4.  Problem-Oriented Guides for Police Series, Washington, DC: Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, U.S. Department of Justice. Available at: https://popcenter.asu.edu/content/analyzing-repeat-victimization

Victims' Vulnerabilities

Offenders may target victims with specific vulnerabilities to commit the crimes in a crime pattern.  Noting similarities in victim vulnerability can help you link crimes in the pattern.

Example Victim Vulnerabilities

Physical vulnerabilities:

age (children, elderly individuals)

physical disabilities or limitations

size or physical stature

health condition

Psychological vulnerabilities:

mental health issues or disorders

cognitive impairments

substance abuse or addiction

trauma or post-traumatic stress

impulsivity or risk-taking behavior

inability to assess danger or make sound judgments 

Communication vulnerabilities:

limited language skills or language barriers

hearing or speech impairments

communication disorders

lack of access to communication devices or services

Socio-economic vulnerabilities:

poverty

unemployment

homelessness

lack of access to education or resources

Geographic vulnerabilities:

high crime rate neighborhoods or areas

remote, secluded, or isolated locations

lack of security infrastructure (lighting, surveillance)

Home vulnerabilities:

lack of home security measures

absence from home (vacations, work, school)

negligence in locking doors, windows

Social vulnerabilities:

lack of social support or strong relationships

social isolation

membership in marginalized or stigmatized groups

targeting based on social status or reputation

peer pressure and influence

discrimination or prejudice

targeted based on race, religion, sexual orientation, or other protected characteristics

Gender-based vulnerabilities:

targeting women for sexual crimes

targeting homosexuals for crime

gender-based violence and harassment

sexual orientation-based violence and harassment

domestic violence or intimate partner violence

traditional gender roles and stereotypes

Technological vulnerabilities:

lack of digital literacy

weak online privacy and security practices

cyberbullying or online harassment

phishing scams and identity theft

exploitation through social media or dating platforms

over-sharing personal information online

weak passwords

revealing geotagged location details

Cultural vulnerabilities:

language barriers

limited knowledge of local customs or laws

cultural or religious practices that may make individuals more susceptible to victimization

targeting based on ethnic or cultural background

unfamiliar with the local environment

targeting in popular tourist destinations

Environmental vulnerabilities:

natural disasters or emergencies

lack of emergency preparedness

poorly maintained infrastructure or public spaces

exposure to environmental hazards (polluted areas, unsafe buildings)

Personal lifestyle vulnerabilities:

alcohol or drug use

involvement in illegal activities

reckless behavior (excessive partying, risky sexual behavior)

inadequate personal safety precautions (not locking doors, walking alone at night)

Financial vulnerabilities:

carrying large sums of cash

lack of financial security measures

falling victim to investment scams or fraud

Time and Conditions

All crimes occur in time, and when those crimes form patterns, they are often referred to as temporal crime patterns. While time is an objectively measurable phenomenon, temporal crime patterns have many nuances and include other elements, such as location, affected by weather conditions and demographics. 

Examples of temporal crime patterns:

• Spike in residential burglaries during weekdays when homes are typically unoccupied due to work or school.

• Spike in commercial burglaries on weekends when businesses are closed and areas around them are deserted.

• Rise in thefts from vehicles during warm summer months when people leave windows open or belongings unattended.

• Spike in vehicle thefts during cold winter mornings when owners warm up their cars and leave them unattended.

• Surge in assault incidents around closing time at bars and nightclubs.

• Increase in incidents of public disorder, including fights or disturbances, during major sporting events or festivals.

• Rise in bicycle thefts during summer when more people are out cycling.

• Surge in retail thefts during the holiday season, particularly in the weeks leading up to major gift-giving holidays.

Examples of Time Variables

Day of the Week:

• weekdays 

• weekends 

• specific weekdays

Time of Day:

• specific time

• morning 

• midday 

• afternoon

• evening 

• nighttime 

• late night 

• specific time range 

• daylight hours

• darkness 

• dawn or dusk

Day of Month:

• specific days of the month

• beginning or end of the month paycheck distribution

• specific days of the month paycheck distribution

• moon phases (full moon, new moon, etc.)

Time Duration of Criminal Activity:

• brief incidents (snatch-and-grab thefts)

• extended incidents (burglaries, hostage situations)

• patterns of repeated incidents over time (serial crimes)

• patterns when one cannot pinpoint the exact time

Seasonal/Periodic Patterns:

• winter 

• spring 

• summer 

• fall/autumn 

• holidays and special occasions 

• travel seasons

• school calendar

• tax season

• inventory periods for businesses

Yearly Time Patterns:

• significant dates or anniversaries criminals choose to commit crimes 

• long-term trends in specific types of crimes

• comparisons of crime rates over time

School-Related Time:

• before school hours

• during school hours

• after school hours

• school breaks and holidays

Travel/Traffic Times:

• morning rush hour 

• evening rush hour 

• holiday travel peaks

• public transportation schedules

Shift Work/Shift Changes:

• day shift 

• evening shift 

• night shift 

• rotating or irregular shifts

• workplace shift changes

• law enforcement shift changes

• security guard shift changes

Events and Gatherings:

• festivals and parades

• sporting events and matches

• concerts and performances

• political rallies or demonstrations

• significant events for specific cultures or religions

• peak tourist seasons in specific areas

Seasonal or Weather-Related Factors:

• daylight saving time changes

• temperature extremes (very hot or very cold weather)

• severe weather conditions (storms, heavy rain)

• basic weather descriptions: clear skies, rainy, snowy, foggy, windy, hot, cold

• long-term changes in climate leading to social and economic disruptions

• longer-lasting effects of natural disasters, such as displacement and increased vulnerability

Time of Scheduled Deliveries:

• postal or courier services

• freight deliveries

• online shopping deliveries

Opening and Closing Hours:

• retail store opening or closing times

• bar and restaurant opening or closing times

• office building opening or closing times

Time of Routine Activities:

• school drop-off or pick-up times

• commuting hours

• peak hours for bars, clubs, and restaurants

• opening and closing times

• ATM cash replenishment times

Time of Critical Infrastructure Maintenance

• power outage or maintenance schedules

• road or transportation network maintenance schedules

Time-Based Vulnerabilities

• walking alone at night

• when security measures are lax

• when emergency services cannot access an area

• strikes, changes in public transport routes/times, or major infrastructure projects 

• periods of economic instability 

• pandemics and public health crises

Absence in Time from Place:

• patterns of no criminal activity when a prolific offender is incarcerated

• crime pattern activity ceased because offender moved away or was away for a span of time

Significant Dates or Anniversaries Examples:

• April 20th: This is Adolf Hitler's birthday and has been used by white supremacist groups and other far-right extremists as a day of significance.

• April 19th: This date marks the anniversary of the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing and the end of the Waco siege in 1993. Some anti-government or extremist groups may view this date as significant.

• June 17th: On this date in 2015, a white supremacist killed nine African Americans in a church in Charleston, South Carolina. This date may hold significance for those motivated by racial hatred.

• July 22nd: On this date in 2011, a far-right extremist in Norway killed 77 people in a bombing and mass shooting. This date may hold significance for far-right extremists.

• August 12th: This date marks the anniversary of the 2017 "Unite the Right" rally in Charlottesville, Virginia, where a white supremacist drove his car into a crowd of counter-protestors, killing one.

• September 11th: Known primarily for the 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, this date may hold significance for various extremist groups.

• Dates associated with religious holidays or observances: Perpetrators may choose dates that are significant to the religion of the group they are targeting. This could include Christian holidays like Christmas or Easter, Jewish holidays like Passover or Yom Kippur, Islamic holidays like Eid al-Fitr or Eid al-Adha, or any other religious observances.

• Dates associated with cultural or national holidays: This could include days like Martin Luther King Jr. Day in the United States, which may be targeted by those motivated by racial hatred, or LGBTQ+ Pride Month in June, which could be targeted by those motivated by anti-LGBTQ+ bias.

Reporting and Recording Issues to Consider

Police reports may only include one field to record the time of a crime, but all crimes occur in a period, even if it is merely seconds from the time the criminal event started to the time it ended. Even if a "start" and "end" time is on a crime report, it may not accurately reflect the time. If a summer cottage was burglarized sometime in the off-season, the actual time and duration (how long it took to commit the crime) are unknown if there are no witnesses or video. If someone is robbed by force, they are more likely to be able to provide a beginning and end time to the robbery, and it is possible then to calculate the duration of the crime.

Timelines

In crimes that have steps that take place over time, calculating the time of the crime is more complex. For example, making counterfeit money involves getting the materials and equipment, making the money, and then distributing the money. Investigators and analysts prepare timelines when investigating cases with various steps. 

A timeline visually represents significant events in the order in which they occurred. It displays events in chronological order for investigations and crime pattern analysis.

A timeline is helpful in various ways:

• Crime linkage: If the same individual or group is committing multiple crimes, a timeline can help investigators see patterns or trends in the times and dates of those crimes. Potentially it can help predict when and where the next crime might occur, aiding in prevention.

• Incident progression: A timeline helps viewers understand how a crime unfolded. For example, in a kidnapping case, a timeline might start with the victim's last known location and then include times of relevant camera footage, phone calls, and other events that provide insight into what happened.

• Pattern recognition: Looking at crimes on a timeline can help reveal patterns that might not be immediately apparent. For example, a rash of burglaries might seem random, but when laid out on a timeline, it might become evident that they happen on the same day of the week or at the same time.

• Correlation with other events: By overlaying crime timelines with other relevant circumstances, investigators can sometimes identify potential triggers or deterrents for crimes. For example, a decrease in crime might correlate with increased police patrols, or an increase might correlate with an economic downturn or significant societal event.

• Evidence correlation: Investigators can use timelines to link suspects to the crime scene or victim. For example, phone records, credit card transactions, or GPS tracking data can provide time-stamped evidence of a suspect's activities and movements.

Overall, timelines are a tool that helps provide a chronological perspective, which is critical in investigations and crime analysis. They help investigators visualize data over time, see patterns, establish links, and provide a holistic view of the incidents in question.

Trends

While trends are about change in a general direction, change occurs in time. 

Examples of trend crime patterns:

• the trend of iPhone thefts decreased when better security features (the Apple Activation Lock) made them less appealing to steal 

  as the price of copper increased in 2008, thefts of copper surged enough that the FBI warned that the trend was a threat to the critical infrastructure 

  
  

Factors That Affect Crime

The FBI lists factors that are known to affect the volume and type of crime occurring from place to place:

• Population density and degree of urbanization

• Variations in the composition of the population, particularly youth concentration

• Stability of the population in residents' mobility, commuting patterns, and transient factors

• Modes of transportation and highway systems

• Economic conditions, including median income, poverty level, and job availability

• Cultural factors and educational, recreational, and religious characteristics

• Family conditions such as divorce and family cohesiveness

• Climate

• Effective strength of law enforcement agencies

• Administrative and investigative emphases of law enforcement

• Policies of other criminal justice system components (prosecutorial, judicial, correctional, and probational)

• Citizens' attitudes toward crime

• Crime reporting practices of the citizenry 

  
  

Demographics and Crime Patterns

Demographics can help in crime pattern analysis in the following ways: 

Statistical data relating to the population and particular groups is called demographics. These groups include age, sex, income level, race, education, employment status, and other variables. 

• Identifying crime rates: Different demographic groups can have different crime rates. For example, crime rates can be higher among young adults than older adults. Identifying these differences can help law enforcement allocate resources more effectively.

• Understanding victimology: Demographics can help understand who is more likely to become a victim of certain types of crime, which can inform preventive measures and support services.

• Predictive policing: By studying the demographics of areas where crimes are most often committed, law enforcement can make educated predictions about where crimes may occur. This can help in deploying resources more effectively.

• Risk factors identification: Certain demographic factors might correlate with higher crime rates, including poverty, lack of education, or unemployment. Understanding these risk factors can inform broader social policies aimed at reducing crime.

• Understanding perpetrator demographics: Just as demographics can help understand victimology, they can also provide insight into common characteristics of perpetrators. This can assist in focusing investigations.

• Community policing strategies: Understanding the demographic makeup of a community can help police departments develop tailored community policing strategies. This might include outreach programs, community meetings, or other plans to build trust and cooperation between the police and the community they serve