Location

Before there were computers, officers put maps up on a wall and used pins to show where crimes occurred. Now most law enforcement agencies use sophisticated Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to map the “where” of crime, and often that information includes the “when.” For the purposes of this book, maps are not used when referring to location. The element of location in a crime pattern goes beyond maps, and refers here to qualitative, descriptive data. Geographic hotspots of crime can only be fully understood by drilling down to discover the nature of the crimes.

Nevertheless, mapping crime is essential to identifying the role of location in a crime pattern. One motel can be the scene of multiple types of crime, and identifying that pattern can result in enforcement measures that address the reasons why that location is a crime “hot dot.” Having a map that identifies the locations of bus stops can help illustrate that crimes are occurring at them, identifying them as problem settings in a particular city. 

When possible, it is best to examine the crime locations in person to understand the location context. For example, arsons committed at dead-end streets in abandoned dwellings have characteristics that might only be understood by firsthand observation. 

 When mapping and examining the geographic locations in crime patterns, it might be helpful to ask the following questions:

How important is geography in this crime pattern?

Is the pattern random or not?

If not, why not?

Is the pattern normal or unusual for this area?

If the pattern is an anomaly, why is this? 

 

When an officer completes a crime report, the location he or she writes is an address. When the address is mapped, latitude/longitude is used. 

 If an investigator of cybercrime creates a report, the location field might contain an IP address. An IP address can sometimes be used to trace a criminal's location. Each device connected to the internet is assigned an IP address, and this address can sometimes be traced back to a specific geographical location. However, criminals often use techniques like VPNs (Virtual Private Networks), proxies, or TOR (The Onion Router) to mask their true IP addresses. Internet Service Providers (ISPs) can provide information about the owner of an IP address, but this generally requires a court order or other legal processes.

Types of Locations

Residential Locations

houses, apartments, and condominiums

gated communities or housing complexes

low-income neighborhoods or public housing projects

Examples of crime at residential locations:

burglaries targeting residential properties

vehicle theft or break-ins in residential driveways or parking areas

domestic violence incidents occurring within households

drug-related activities and sales in residential neighborhoods

robberies targeting individuals in (home invasion) or near their residences

Detailed descriptors of residential locations: apartment, assisted living facility, barracks, basement, boat, bungalow, condominium, convalescent home, cottage, dormitory, duplex, tri-plex, garage/carport, hotel, houseboat, mansion, military housing, mobile home, motel, multi-family dwelling (apartment), nursing home, ranch (one story), rest home, single family, temporary quarters, tent, three + floors, townhouse, trailer, transient quarters, treehouse, two-story, vacant, vessel, yurt

Condition of residential location: cover present (fences/bushes), displays signs of wealth, dog present, door unlocked, driveway, fenced yard, garage door(s) open, poor lighting, previously burgled, vacant

Context of residential location: no one home (funeral, work hours), time of day (nighttime, daytime, early morning, middle of the night), 

Commercial Locations

shopping centers and malls

retail stores and shops

restaurants and bars

banks and financial institutions

office buildings and business parks

gas stations and convenience stores

Examples of crime at commercial locations:

shoplifting or theft from retail stores

robberies targeting businesses or financial institutions

fraudulent activities, such as credit card scams or counterfeit currency, in commercial establishments

vandalism or property damage to commercial properties

illegal sale or distribution of controlled substances near or within businesses

Detailed descriptors of business-type locations: airport, arcade, bank/ATM/credit union, bar/tavern/nightclub/lounge, business office, cargo container, casino, catering truck, church/synagogue/temple/religious building, coin shop, commercial building, clothing/shoe store, coffee shop/café, construction site, convenience store, convention facility, day laborer site, daycare facility, dental office, entertainment center, fast food restaurant, gas/service station, grocery store/market, hair/nail/tan salon, hotel/motel, industrial complex, jail/prison, jewelry store, laundromat, liquor store, lounge, manufacturing, market, medical office/veterinarian, mini-mart, motel/hotel, movie theater, nursing facility, offender's workplace, office, pawn shop, pet store, pharmacy, racetrack, restaurant, retail business, service station, shopping mall/center/retail store, sports complex, storage facility, thrift store, victim's workplace, warehouse

Recreational and entertainment venues

parks and playgrounds

sports stadiums and arenas

theaters and cinemas

concert venues and music halls

amusement parks and arcades

casinos and gambling establishments

Examples of crimes at recreational and entertainment venues:

assaults or fights occurring at bars, nightclubs, or entertainment venues

theft from parked vehicles near recreational areas or stadiums

drug-related activities at music festivals or concerts

vandalism or property damage in parks or public recreational areas

sexual assaults or harassment at tourist destinations or entertainment venues

Educational institutions

schools (elementary, middle, high schools)

colleges and universities

vocational or technical schools

libraries and research facilities

Examples of crimes at educational institutions: 

theft of personal belongings or electronics from lockers or classrooms

bullying or harassment incidents among students

drug-related activities on school grounds or nearby

vandalism or property damage to school property

assaults or fights among students or involving staff members

Transportation hubs

airports and train stations

bus terminals and stops

seaports and docks

taxi stands and ride-sharing pick-up points

Examples of crimes at transportation hubs:

theft or pickpocketing in crowded transit stations or buses

assaults or harassment on public transportation

drug-related activities in or around transportation hubs

robberies targeting commuters carrying valuable items

vandalism or property damage to transit infrastructure

Healthcare facilities

hospitals and medical centers

clinics and doctor's offices

nursing homes and assisted living facilities

pharmacies and drugstores

Examples of crimes at healthcare facilities:

theft of medication or medical equipment from hospitals or pharmacies

assaults on healthcare workers or patients

illegal drug diversion or prescription fraud

vandalism or property damage to healthcare facilities

trespassing or unauthorized access to restricted areas within healthcare facilities

Government and public facilities

police stations and law enforcement agencies

courthouses and legal institutions

government offices and administrative buildings

prisons and correctional facilities

public parks and squares

Examples of crimes at government and public facilities: Vandalism or graffiti in public parks or government buildings

Protests, demonstrations, or civil unrest near government offices or public spaces

Theft or damage to public property or infrastructure

Assaults or disturbances at courthouses or government hearings

Disorderly conduct or public intoxication in public spaces

Detailed descriptors of government and public facilities: abandoned building, aquarium, art gallery, athletic field, barn, bus, bus station, carnival, church, circus, college campus, concert hall, elementary school, fair, golf course, government building, high school, hospital, house, library, locker room, mall, market, military installation, movie theatre, museum, office building, outdoor concert, outdoor market, parking lot, parking lot structure, private school, public building, public restroom, public school, public transportation stations, racetrack, religious building, reservation, shed, shopping mall, sidewalk, storeroom, synagogue, temple, theatre, tourist area, vacant building, zoo

Industrial and manufacturing facilities

factories and production plants

warehouses and distribution centers

construction sites and building projects

power plants and utilities

Examples of crimes at industrial and manufacturing facilities:

Theft of raw materials or finished goods from warehouses or factories

Vandalism or property damage to industrial facilities

Occupational health and safety violations leading to accidents or injuries

Illegal dumping or pollution in industrial zones

Unauthorized access or trespassing in restricted areas

Tourist destinations

tourist attractions and landmarks

hotels and resorts

museums and art galleries

beaches and waterfronts

historical sites and monuments

Examples of crimes at tourist destinations:

theft or pickpocketing targeting tourists in crowded areas

scams or fraudulent activities aimed at tourists

assaults or harassment of tourists in popular tourist spots

vandalism or property damage to tourist attractions

identity theft or credit card fraud targeting tourists

Rural and natural areas

farms and agricultural areas

forests and national parks

camping sites and hiking trails

lakes, rivers, and bodies of water

Examples of crimes in rural and natural locations:

poaching or illegal hunting activities

theft or vandalism of farm equipment or livestock in rural areas

illicit drug production or cultivation in remote locations

burglaries or thefts targeting isolated rural properties

environmental crimes, such as illegal dumping or wildlife trafficking

Detailed descriptors of outdoors areas: alley, beach, bay, bayou, boat, bridge, camp, camping area, canal, cave, cemetery, creek, culvert, desert, dirt, ditch, dock, driveway, embankment, farm, field, foothills, forest, freeway, garage, gravel, harbor, highway, hills, isolated, lake, landfill, mine, mountain area, mountains, ocean, open field, orchard, overpass, park, parking lot, path, pond, pool, quarry, ramp, rest stop, river, road, rural area, shoreline, sidewalk, storm drain, stream, swamp, swimming pool, trail, vacant lot, waterway, wooded area, woods

Religious institutions

churches, mosques, temples, and synagogues

religious community centers and meeting places

religious schools and training facilities

Examples of crimes at religious institutions:

vandalism, arson, or property damage to religious buildings

hate crimes targeting religious communities

theft or burglaries in religious institutions

trespassing or unauthorized access to religious premises

harassment or intimidation of individuals based on religious affiliation

Underground and subterranean locations

tunnels and underground passages

sewers and drainage systems

caves and underground storage facilities

Examples of crimes at underground and subterranean locations:

drug-related activities or illicit gatherings in underground spaces

vandalism or graffiti in subway tunnels or underground passages

assaults or robberies in poorly lit or secluded underground areas

trespassing or unauthorized access to restricted underground locations

illegal activities, such as gambling or drug trade, in hidden subterranean spaces

Vacant or abandoned locations

abandoned buildings and properties

vacant lots and construction sites

derelict structures or infrastructure

Examples of crimes at vacant or abandoned locations:

squatting or unauthorized occupation of vacant buildings or lots

vandalism, arson, or property damage to abandoned properties

illegal drug use or drug dealing in vacant buildings

trespassing or loitering in abandoned areas

illegal dumping or disposal of waste in vacant or abandoned lots

Border areas and crossings  

border checkpoints and crossings

ports and border terminals

immigration detention centers

Examples of crimes at border areas and crossings:

smuggling of contraband goods, such as drugs, weapons, or illegal immigrants

border-related fraud, such as document forgery or human trafficking

robberies or assaults targeting individuals crossing the border

illegal trade or trafficking in border regions

vandalism or property damage to border infrastructure

Online and cyber spaces

social media platforms and online forums

e-commerce websites and online marketplaces

dark web marketplaces and illicit online forums

Examples of crimes online and in cyberspace:

cyber fraud, including phishing scams, identity theft, or financial fraud

online harassment, cyberbullying, or stalking

unauthorized access to computer systems or hacking activities

online scams or fraudulent schemes targeting individuals or businesses

distribution or consumption of illegal content, such as child pornography or pirated material, in online spaces

Specific locations

The specificities of a location can help connect crimes. For example, a burglar might target only the bedrooms in a house for ransacking, or a rapist may grab and rape his targets in driveways.

Detailed example descriptors of specific locations: adjacent open field, alley, attic, backyard bedroom, break room, closet, corner, cul-de-sac, dining room, driveway, elevator, family room, garage, hallway, kitchen, laundry room, living room, locker room, mailbox, middle of the block, office, parking area, parking lot, patio, porch, restroom, room, safe/box, stables, stables tack room, storage area, storage shed, sunroom

Other Location Considerations

Geocoding limitations: Geocoding, the process of converting addresses or descriptions into geographic coordinates for computer mapping, may encounter challenges. Errors in geocoding can lead to inaccuracies in crime location mapping and subsequent pattern analysis. In some cases, addresses may be imprecise, lacking specific details such as building numbers or street names.

Spatial aggregation: Crime data is often aggregated at different spatial levels, such as neighborhoods, census tracts, or police districts, to protect privacy or manage data volume.  Aggregation can mask localized crime patterns and hinder the identification of smaller-scale hotspots within larger areas.

Spatial resolution: Crime data may be recorded at different spatial resolutions, ranging from broad geographical areas (such as neighborhoods) to specific addresses.  Analyzing crime patterns at a highly granular level may raise privacy concerns, while broader spatial resolutions can mask localized patterns.

Geographical boundaries: Crime patterns may transcend jurisdictional boundaries, making it difficult to pinpoint specific locations. Crimes can occur in border areas, overlapping jurisdictions, or transitional zones, requiring coordination and data sharing among multiple agencies. 

Temporal considerations: Analyzing crime patterns over time requires consideration of the time frame, such as specific days of the week, hours of the day, or seasonal variations. Ignoring temporal aspects can obscure important patterns and trends associated with crime locations. 

Contextual factors: Crime patterns are influenced by various contextual factors, including socio-economic conditions, population dynamics, land use, and environmental features. Failing to account for these contextual factors when pinpointing crime locations can result in incomplete or misleading patterns.

Dynamic nature of crime: Crime patterns can evolve over time due to various factors, such as changes in demographics, policing strategies, or economic conditions. A static analysis that solely focuses on historical crime locations may not capture emerging patterns or shifts in criminal activity.

Further Reading

Clarke, R.V. and Eck, J.E. (2007). Understanding Risky Facilities, Problem-Solving Tools Series No. 6.  Problem-Oriented Guides for Police Series, Washington, DC: Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, U.S. Department of Justice. Available at: https://popcenter.asu.edu/content/understanding-risky-facilities

Shane, JM (2012). Abandoned Buildings and Lots,  Problem-Specific Guide Series No. 64.  Problem-Oriented Guides for Police Series, Washington, DC: Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, U.S. Department of Justice. Available at: https://popcenter.asu.edu/content/abandoned-buildings-and-lots-0