Before there were computers, officers put maps up on a wall and used pins to show where crimes occurred. Now most law enforcement agencies use sophisticated Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to map the “where” of crime, and often that information includes the “when.” For the purposes of this book, maps are not used when referring to location. The element of location in a crime pattern goes beyond maps, and refers here to qualitative, descriptive data. Geographic hotspots of crime can only be fully understood by drilling down to discover the nature of the crimes.
Nevertheless, mapping crime is essential to identifying the role of location in a crime pattern. One motel can be the scene of multiple types of crime, and identifying that pattern can result in enforcement measures that address the reasons why that location is a crime “hot dot.” Having a map that identifies the locations of bus stops can help illustrate that crimes are occurring at them, identifying them as problem settings in a particular city.
When possible, it is best to examine the crime locations in person to understand the location context. For example, arsons committed at dead-end streets in abandoned dwellings have characteristics that might only be understood by firsthand observation.
When mapping and examining the geographic locations in crime patterns, it might be helpful to ask the following questions:
How important is geography in this crime pattern?
Is the pattern random or not?
If not, why not?
Is the pattern normal or unusual for this area?
If the pattern is an anomaly, why is this?
When an officer completes a crime report, the location he or she writes is an address. When the address is mapped, latitude/longitude is used.
If an investigator of cybercrime creates a report, the location field might contain an IP address. An IP address can sometimes be used to trace a criminal's location. Each device connected to the internet is assigned an IP address, and this address can sometimes be traced back to a specific geographical location. However, criminals often use techniques like VPNs (Virtual Private Networks), proxies, or TOR (The Onion Router) to mask their true IP addresses. Internet Service Providers (ISPs) can provide information about the owner of an IP address, but this generally requires a court order or other legal processes.
Types of Locations
Residential Locations
houses, apartments, and condominiums
gated communities or housing complexes
low-income neighborhoods or public housing projects
Examples of crime at residential locations:
burglaries targeting residential properties
vehicle theft or break-ins in residential driveways or parking areas
domestic violence incidents occurring within households
drug-related activities and sales in residential neighborhoods
robberies targeting individuals in (home invasion) or near their residences
Detailed descriptors of residential locations: apartment, assisted living facility, barracks, basement, boat, bungalow, condominium, convalescent home, cottage, dormitory, duplex, tri-plex, garage/carport, hotel, houseboat, mansion, military housing, mobile home, motel, multi-family dwelling (apartment), nursing home, ranch (one story), rest home, single family, temporary quarters, tent, three + floors, townhouse, trailer, transient quarters, treehouse, two-story, vacant, vessel, yurt
Condition of residential location: cover present (fences/bushes), displays signs of wealth, dog present, door unlocked, driveway, fenced yard, garage door(s) open, poor lighting, previously burgled, vacant
Context of residential location: no one home (funeral, work hours), time of day (nighttime, daytime, early morning, middle of the night),
Commercial Locations
shopping centers and malls
retail stores and shops
restaurants and bars
banks and financial institutions
office buildings and business parks
gas stations and convenience stores
Examples of crime at commercial locations:
shoplifting or theft from retail stores
robberies targeting businesses or financial institutions
fraudulent activities, such as credit card scams or counterfeit currency, in commercial establishments
vandalism or property damage to commercial properties
illegal sale or distribution of controlled substances near or within businesses
Detailed descriptors of business-type locations: airport, arcade, bank/ATM/credit union, bar/tavern/nightclub/lounge, business office, cargo container, casino, catering truck, church/synagogue/temple/religious building, coin shop, commercial building, clothing/shoe store, coffee shop/café, construction site, convenience store, convention facility, day laborer site, daycare facility, dental office, entertainment center, fast food restaurant, gas/service station, grocery store/market, hair/nail/tan salon, hotel/motel, industrial complex, jail/prison, jewelry store, laundromat, liquor store, lounge, manufacturing, market, medical office/veterinarian, mini-mart, motel/hotel, movie theater, nursing facility, offender's workplace, office, pawn shop, pet store, pharmacy, racetrack, restaurant, retail business, service station, shopping mall/center/retail store, sports complex, storage facility, thrift store, victim's workplace, warehouse
Recreational and entertainment venues
parks and playgrounds
sports stadiums and arenas
theaters and cinemas
concert venues and music halls
amusement parks and arcades
casinos and gambling establishments
Examples of crimes at recreational and entertainment venues:
assaults or fights occurring at bars, nightclubs, or entertainment venues
theft from parked vehicles near recreational areas or stadiums
drug-related activities at music festivals or concerts
vandalism or property damage in parks or public recreational areas
sexual assaults or harassment at tourist destinations or entertainment venues
Educational institutions
schools (elementary, middle, high schools)
colleges and universities
vocational or technical schools
libraries and research facilities
Examples of crimes at educational institutions:
theft of personal belongings or electronics from lockers or classrooms
bullying or harassment incidents among students
drug-related activities on school grounds or nearby
vandalism or property damage to school property
assaults or fights among students or involving staff members
Transportation hubs
airports and train stations
bus terminals and stops
seaports and docks
taxi stands and ride-sharing pick-up points
Examples of crimes at transportation hubs:
theft or pickpocketing in crowded transit stations or buses
assaults or harassment on public transportation
drug-related activities in or around transportation hubs
robberies targeting commuters carrying valuable items
vandalism or property damage to transit infrastructure
Healthcare facilities
hospitals and medical centers
clinics and doctor's offices
nursing homes and assisted living facilities
pharmacies and drugstores
Examples of crimes at healthcare facilities:
theft of medication or medical equipment from hospitals or pharmacies
assaults on healthcare workers or patients
illegal drug diversion or prescription fraud
vandalism or property damage to healthcare facilities
trespassing or unauthorized access to restricted areas within healthcare facilities
Government and public facilities
police stations and law enforcement agencies
courthouses and legal institutions
government offices and administrative buildings
prisons and correctional facilities
public parks and squares
Examples of crimes at government and public facilities: Vandalism or graffiti in public parks or government buildings
Protests, demonstrations, or civil unrest near government offices or public spaces
Theft or damage to public property or infrastructure
Assaults or disturbances at courthouses or government hearings
Disorderly conduct or public intoxication in public spaces
Detailed descriptors of government and public facilities: abandoned building, aquarium, art gallery, athletic field, barn, bus, bus station, carnival, church, circus, college campus, concert hall, elementary school, fair, golf course, government building, high school, hospital, house, library, locker room, mall, market, military installation, movie theatre, museum, office building, outdoor concert, outdoor market, parking lot, parking lot structure, private school, public building, public restroom, public school, public transportation stations, racetrack, religious building, reservation, shed, shopping mall, sidewalk, storeroom, synagogue, temple, theatre, tourist area, vacant building, zoo
Industrial and manufacturing facilities
factories and production plants
warehouses and distribution centers
construction sites and building projects
power plants and utilities
Examples of crimes at industrial and manufacturing facilities:
Theft of raw materials or finished goods from warehouses or factories
Vandalism or property damage to industrial facilities
Occupational health and safety violations leading to accidents or injuries
Illegal dumping or pollution in industrial zones
Unauthorized access or trespassing in restricted areas
Tourist destinations
tourist attractions and landmarks
hotels and resorts
museums and art galleries
beaches and waterfronts
historical sites and monuments
Examples of crimes at tourist destinations:
theft or pickpocketing targeting tourists in crowded areas
scams or fraudulent activities aimed at tourists
assaults or harassment of tourists in popular tourist spots
vandalism or property damage to tourist attractions
identity theft or credit card fraud targeting tourists
Rural and natural areas
farms and agricultural areas
forests and national parks
camping sites and hiking trails
lakes, rivers, and bodies of water
Examples of crimes in rural and natural locations:
poaching or illegal hunting activities
theft or vandalism of farm equipment or livestock in rural areas
illicit drug production or cultivation in remote locations
burglaries or thefts targeting isolated rural properties
environmental crimes, such as illegal dumping or wildlife trafficking
Detailed descriptors of outdoors areas: alley, beach, bay, bayou, boat, bridge, camp, camping area, canal, cave, cemetery, creek, culvert, desert, dirt, ditch, dock, driveway, embankment, farm, field, foothills, forest, freeway, garage, gravel, harbor, highway, hills, isolated, lake, landfill, mine, mountain area, mountains, ocean, open field, orchard, overpass, park, parking lot, path, pond, pool, quarry, ramp, rest stop, river, road, rural area, shoreline, sidewalk, storm drain, stream, swamp, swimming pool, trail, vacant lot, waterway, wooded area, woods
Religious institutions
churches, mosques, temples, and synagogues
religious community centers and meeting places
religious schools and training facilities
Examples of crimes at religious institutions:
vandalism, arson, or property damage to religious buildings
hate crimes targeting religious communities
theft or burglaries in religious institutions
trespassing or unauthorized access to religious premises
harassment or intimidation of individuals based on religious affiliation
Underground and subterranean locations
tunnels and underground passages
sewers and drainage systems
caves and underground storage facilities
Examples of crimes at underground and subterranean locations:
drug-related activities or illicit gatherings in underground spaces
vandalism or graffiti in subway tunnels or underground passages
assaults or robberies in poorly lit or secluded underground areas
trespassing or unauthorized access to restricted underground locations
illegal activities, such as gambling or drug trade, in hidden subterranean spaces
Vacant or abandoned locations
abandoned buildings and properties
vacant lots and construction sites
derelict structures or infrastructure
Examples of crimes at vacant or abandoned locations:
squatting or unauthorized occupation of vacant buildings or lots
vandalism, arson, or property damage to abandoned properties
illegal drug use or drug dealing in vacant buildings
trespassing or loitering in abandoned areas
illegal dumping or disposal of waste in vacant or abandoned lots
Border areas and crossings
border checkpoints and crossings
ports and border terminals
immigration detention centers
Examples of crimes at border areas and crossings:
smuggling of contraband goods, such as drugs, weapons, or illegal immigrants
border-related fraud, such as document forgery or human trafficking
robberies or assaults targeting individuals crossing the border
illegal trade or trafficking in border regions
vandalism or property damage to border infrastructure
Online and cyber spaces
social media platforms and online forums
e-commerce websites and online marketplaces
dark web marketplaces and illicit online forums
Examples of crimes online and in cyberspace:
cyber fraud, including phishing scams, identity theft, or financial fraud
online harassment, cyberbullying, or stalking
unauthorized access to computer systems or hacking activities
online scams or fraudulent schemes targeting individuals or businesses
distribution or consumption of illegal content, such as child pornography or pirated material, in online spaces
Specific locations
The specificities of a location can help connect crimes. For example, a burglar might target only the bedrooms in a house for ransacking, or a rapist may grab and rape his targets in driveways.
Detailed example descriptors of specific locations: adjacent open field, alley, attic, backyard bedroom, break room, closet, corner, cul-de-sac, dining room, driveway, elevator, family room, garage, hallway, kitchen, laundry room, living room, locker room, mailbox, middle of the block, office, parking area, parking lot, patio, porch, restroom, room, safe/box, stables, stables tack room, storage area, storage shed, sunroom
Other Location Considerations
Geocoding limitations: Geocoding, the process of converting addresses or descriptions into geographic coordinates for computer mapping, may encounter challenges. Errors in geocoding can lead to inaccuracies in crime location mapping and subsequent pattern analysis. In some cases, addresses may be imprecise, lacking specific details such as building numbers or street names.
Spatial aggregation: Crime data is often aggregated at different spatial levels, such as neighborhoods, census tracts, or police districts, to protect privacy or manage data volume. Aggregation can mask localized crime patterns and hinder the identification of smaller-scale hotspots within larger areas.
Spatial resolution: Crime data may be recorded at different spatial resolutions, ranging from broad geographical areas (such as neighborhoods) to specific addresses. Analyzing crime patterns at a highly granular level may raise privacy concerns, while broader spatial resolutions can mask localized patterns.
Geographical boundaries: Crime patterns may transcend jurisdictional boundaries, making it difficult to pinpoint specific locations. Crimes can occur in border areas, overlapping jurisdictions, or transitional zones, requiring coordination and data sharing among multiple agencies.
Temporal considerations: Analyzing crime patterns over time requires consideration of the time frame, such as specific days of the week, hours of the day, or seasonal variations. Ignoring temporal aspects can obscure important patterns and trends associated with crime locations.
Contextual factors: Crime patterns are influenced by various contextual factors, including socio-economic conditions, population dynamics, land use, and environmental features. Failing to account for these contextual factors when pinpointing crime locations can result in incomplete or misleading patterns.
Dynamic nature of crime: Crime patterns can evolve over time due to various factors, such as changes in demographics, policing strategies, or economic conditions. A static analysis that solely focuses on historical crime locations may not capture emerging patterns or shifts in criminal activity.
Further Reading
Clarke, R.V. and Eck, J.E. (2007). Understanding Risky Facilities, Problem-Solving Tools Series No. 6. Problem-Oriented Guides for Police Series, Washington, DC: Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, U.S. Department of Justice. Available at: https://popcenter.asu.edu/content/understanding-risky-facilities
Shane, JM (2012). Abandoned Buildings and Lots, Problem-Specific Guide Series No. 64. Problem-Oriented Guides for Police Series, Washington, DC: Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, U.S. Department of Justice. Available at: https://popcenter.asu.edu/content/abandoned-buildings-and-lots-0